Seasonal variation in heavy metal intake and excretion by dairy cattle in an Indian megacity

Milk consumption plays a pivotal role in human nutrition, especially for children, due to its high protein, calcium, and vitamin contents that aid cognitive development. Nonetheless, potential hazards from heavy metal presence in milk, due to environmental exposure and intake through feed, have gained global attention. Given paucity of data we investigated the seasonal variation in the quantitative intake of heavy metals (cadmium: Cd, chromium: Cr, lead: Pb) by dairy cows in the South Indian megacity of Bengaluru, and the resulting heavy metal concentrations in milk and feces. The research involved 39 dairy farms across urban and peri‑urban areas, where 281 feed, 329 milk, and 183 feces samples were collected along with management data during monsoon (July 2020 - August 2020), winter (November 2020 – February 2021) and summer (March 2022 – June 2022) seasons. During the summer season, Cd concentration in lake fodder averaged 1.6 mg/kg DM, which was higher than the 0.6 mg/kg DM during winter and 0.9 mg/kg DM during the monsoon season. The higher concentration resulted in an increased daily Cd intake of 13.7 mg/cow/day. Similarly, Cr and Pb intake were also highest in summer (Cr: 46.3 mg/cow/day, Pb: 11.7 mg/cow/day), whereby for both elements the concentrations were higher in non-lake feed than in lake fodder. With the exception of a few milk samples, Cr and Pb concentrations were below threshold levels and did not compromise milk safety, and Cd levels never raised concerns. Nevertheless, elevated Cr and Pb concentrations (Cr: 9.8–16.9 mg/kg DM, Pb: 4.1–10.6 mg/kg DM) were determined in feces across seasons, potentially endangering the environment and reintroducing these elements into the food chain through manure application on agricultural land. Rather than uniformly discouraging the use of lake fodder in Bengaluru, authorities on the one hand should caution fodder usage in pollution-prone areas, and on the other hand take measures to reduce contamination levels at those sites. Furthermore, it appears necessary to implement more stringent control measures for other types of feedstuffs. Raising farmers' awareness of the problem of heavy metals in the food chain could promote their compliance with regulations without the need for complete feed bans, which are difficult to enforce in a highly contested urban environment.